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The evolutionary history of a group of species (or any set of taxa women's health center of clarksville tn femara 2.5 mg fast delivery, genes menstruation in space generic 2.5mg femara visa, or tips) women's health magazine big book of yoga femara 2.5 mg generic. The ancestral node at the base of a tree pregnancy calculator buy femara 2.5 mg line, representing the most recent common ancestor of all species included in that tree. Clades are composed of organisms that are more closely related to each other than to any organisms outside the clade, Two clades are shown in figure 1B: (A, B) and (C, D). Anything else that one thinks can be inferred from this cladogram is overinterpretation. Many botanical terms used for real trees are used metaphorically for phylogenetic trees. Figure 1C shows the same information as figure 1B, although now as a slanted vertical tree. The "root" is at the base of the tree, representing the furthest point in the past. The path of evolution can then be traced along "branches" ("internodes"), always moving away from the root toward the present. Finally, terminal branches lead to "tips" ("leaves" or "terminal nodes"), which frequently represent extant species that exist in the present (species AD in this case). The tips of the tree generally represent a single species or a species as a representative of a larger group; however, tips sometimes represent an individual organism or an allele in a gene tree. The trees in figure 1 show each ancestral node with two descendant branches-these trees are bifurcating trees. Although the next two chapters focus on how to construct trees, this chapter is about what those trees represent and how to interpret them. The challenge of interpreting trees is present even if we know the correct tree. Most biologists need not know how various phylogenetic algorithms work, but all biologists should know what trees represent and how trees inform our understanding of the process of evolution. The arrow at the left labeled X represents a mouse species that lived 4 million years ago. The mouse populations evolved as a result of mutation, genetic drift, and selection for 1 million years as time moved from left to right. At 3 million years ago, an evolutionary fork in the road occurred, some geological change such as a rise in sea level divided the ancestral species into two descendant species, species Y and Z. These species evolved for another 1 million years before a mountain chain formed in the range of species Y, leading to the formation of species A and B. The drawing in figure 1A includes extra information about ancestral species and speciation events, but basically it is a phylogenetic tree. In this tree, the branch lengths are drawn to scale based on time, so this is a scaled tree, specifically a chronogram. In figure 1B, only species A, B, C, and D are shown, and the branch lengths are not drawn to scale. Such unscaled trees are known as cladograms, which focus on the most important information, the evolutionary relationships or tree topology. Crucially, in the language of phylogenetic systematics, "more closely related" means One key botanical term is missing from phylogenetic trees: there is never a trunk, never a main stem, never a main branch. Understanding that from every node there are two descendant branches, both of which lead to continued evolutionary change, is key to understanding phylogenetic trees. More important, understanding that there is no trunk is crucial for a clear understanding of the very process of evolution. Other aspects of the tree metaphor can also lead to misinterpretation, especially the idea that some extant species might be "lower down on the tree," either within a branch, or at the tip of a branch that terminates low down, closer to the root. It is important to trace history starting from the root of the tree and moving toward the branch tips; thus, the lineages are evolving as time moves from the past toward the present. For example, on a vertical tree such as figure 1C, evolution moves from the bottom to the top along the y-axis. Critically, the axis A Y A B X C Z D 4 3 Million years ago 2 1 0 B A B C D Past Time Present C A B C D Species, individual, or gene Node Time Branch Root node Root Figure 1. Arrows represent the paths of evolution from the common ancestor to the descendant species. These arrows form a phylogenetic tree showing relationships among extant species AD. A group of biologists centered in Canberra, Australia, published a series of papers explaining the problem of this "basal fallacy.
A network meta-analysis included 114 randomized controlled trials (n = 20 womens health 31 meals in 31 days recipes generic 2.5mg femara,725) evaluating single active ophthalmic agents for the treatment of primary open-angle glaucoma (Li et al 2016) womens health tulsa order femara 2.5 mg line. All trials compared active first-line drugs to no treatment or placebo or another single topical agent for glaucoma womens health zucchini recipe femara 2.5 mg for sale. A network meta-analysis evaluated 72 randomized controlled trials (n = 19 breast cancer treatment generic 2.5 mg femara,916) that reported efficacy and safety of medications for the treatment of primary open-angle glaucoma or ocular hypertension over at least 3 months (Li et al 2018). More severe hyperemia was associated with prostaglandin analogues compared to any other monotherapy, with beta-blockers having the lowest effect on the incidence of hyperemia. Most 2-drug combinations with prostaglandin analogues also led to serious hyperemia with the exception of the combination of prostaglandin analogues and alpha-agonists. A network meta-analysis evaluated data from 28 randomized controlled trials in patients with primary open-angle glaucoma or ocular hypertension for peak (n = 6841) and trough (n = 6953) effect of 8 drugs (van der Valk et al 2009). The studies assessed bimatoprost, travoprost, latanoprost, brimonidine, timolol, dorzolamide, betaxolol, and brinzolamide. Latanoprost was as effective as dorzolamide/timolol in patients without prior timolol treatment (Cheng et al 2009). Alpha-Agonists the comparative clinical trial data regarding the safety and efficacy of the ophthalmic alpha-agonists are limited. In a meta-analysis of 2 double-blind, multicenter, parallel group, randomized controlled trials, brimonidine purite 0. The second study found a statistically significantly lower overall incidence of treatment-related adverse events with brimonidine purite 0. The pooled data demonstrated a reduced overall incidence of treatment-related adverse events proportional to the reductions in the concentration of the active ingredient (p < 0. In 3 studies, perioperative brimonidine was associated with higher rates of conjunctival blanching compared to placebo. The authors concluded that it is unclear whether one medication in the alpha-agonist class is better than another. Beta-Blockers Timolol has been a frequent comparator in numerous clinical trials with agents for the treatment of glaucoma and ocular hypertension. Studies that reported adverse events categorized all events as mild to moderate; the most frequent adverse events reported included burning or stinging upon instillation and tearing (Berry et al 1984, Berson et al 1985, Boozman et al 1988, Evans et al 1999, Geyer et al 1998, Halper et al 2002, Krieglstein et al 1987, Miki et al 2004, Mills et al 1986, Mundorf et al 2004, Schenker et al 2000, Shedden et al 2001, Sonty et al 2009, Stewart et al 1986, Stewart et al 2002, Vogel et al 1989, Walters et al 1998, Watson et al 2001). Studies involving patients with open-angle glaucoma or ocular hypertension comparing betaxolol 0. All studies reported mild adverse events including burning or stinging upon instillation and tearing. In this study, the lowest number of adverse events was reported in the carteolol 1% group, followed by timolol 0. The majority of studies did not report significant differences in adverse events between treatment groups. Additionally, the incidence of burning and/or stinging was found to be significantly higher in the levobunolol 0. However, the efficacy of ophthalmic carbonic anhydrase inhibitors in reducing vision loss due to glaucoma has not been established in clinical trials (Jacobs 2018[b]). Single agent ophthalmic carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, brinzolamide and dorzolamide, were evaluated in a multicenter, parallel group study. In a safety trial, significantly fewer patients reported ocular discomfort, specifically burning and stinging, with brinzolamide compared to dorzolamide (p < 0. Taste disturbance was reported in up to 12% of patients in the brinzolamide group, while only 8. Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors compared to other classes the single agent carbonic anhydrase inhibitors were compared to beta-blockers (March et al 2000, Rusk et al 1998, Strahlman et al 1995). Brinzolamide was compared to timolol, while dorzolamide was compared to timolol and betaxolol. The safety and efficacy of brinzolamide and dorzolamide were compared to brimonidine. Miotics the clinical trial data regarding the safety and efficacy of the ophthalmic miotics are very limited.
Sex chromosomes arise from a pair of initially identical autosomes with the same sets of homologous genes (white boxes) women's health issues in louisiana cheap femara 2.5mg fast delivery. The first step in the evolution of heteromorphic sex chromosomes is the acquisition of a sex-determining gene (in black) on one of the autosomes menstrual blood order femara 2.5mg without prescription. The accumulation of sexually antagonistic mutations close to the sexdetermining region (shaded boxes) selects for a repression of recombination between nascent sex chromosomes (darker-shaded area along the chromosome) women's health center madison wi generic femara 2.5mg otc. The nonrecombining Y chromosome loses most of its original genes (gray boxes indicate pseudogenes) and degenerates menstrual uterine contractions discount 2.5 mg femara otc. In the case where sex determination arises in a hermaphroditic species, evolving separate sexes (and sex chromosomes) would actually require mutations at two loci (a male and a female sterility mutation). If sex chromosomes arise in a hermaphroditic species, as is the case for most plants and many animals, a likely path for the evolution of separate sexes and sex chromosomes is that one proto-sex chromosome acquires a male-sterility mutation and the other proto-sex chromosome acquires a female-sterility mutation. Depending on the dominance relationship of these mutations, this would generate a proto-X/proto-Y or proto-Z/proto-W chromosome and the population would transition through a stage in which both hermaphrodites and females, or hermaphrodites and males, are present. There is then strong selection to restrict recombination between the male-sterility and femalesterility mutations on the different chromosomes, since a recombination event could place both mutations on the same chromosome and would generate a sterile individual. In a species with environmental sex determination, a dominant male-determining mutation on a former autosome would create a proto-Y chromosome, while a dominant female-determining mutation would result in the origination of a proto-W chromosome (figure 2). On autosomes, recombination homogenizes the gene content between the homologous paternal and maternal chromosomes and shuffles segregating mutations across different chromosomal backgrounds. To allow nascent sex chromosomes to evolve independently, it is necessary that recombination between the proto-Y and proto-X chromosomes becomes suppressed, allowing each chromosome to accumulate independent mutations; the X and the Y can then diverge from each other in sequence and function. But why should recombination become restricted on a pair of proto-sex chromosomes beyond the sexdetermining region? Sexual Antagonism Drives Recombination Suppression the driving force for the evolution of restricted recombination between proto-sex chromosomes is generally thought to result from sexually antagonistic alleles accumulating close to the sex-determining region. Sexual antagonism refers to a situation in which genes cause opposing fitness effects in the two sexes. Males and females in many species differ in their morphology, behavior, and physiology; however, in the absence of sex chromosomes, they share identical sets of genes. It is possible that a large number of genes or mutations may have opposing fitness benefits in the two sexes; specific mutations can be good for one sex, but bad for the other. For example, in guppies, females prefer males with bright, colorful ornaments; despite increased predation risk, such males have a mating advantage over 390 Genes, Genomes, Phenotypes mutations); most mutations, however, are detrimental and reduce the function of a well-adapted gene (deleterious mutations). On a recombining chromosome, natural selection can act on individual mutations by reshuffling mutations and putting them on different genomic backgrounds. In contrast, in the absence of recombination, new gene combinations cannot be generated and selection must act on the entire chromosome. That is, different selected mutations on a nonrecombining chromosome can interfere with each other, thereby reducing the efficacy of natural selection. The ruby in the rubbish model, in contrast, states that reduced fitness of Y-linked genes relative to the X instead results from a lower rate of incorporation of beneficial mutations. Under both scenarios, dysfunctional Y-linked alleles will eventually become silenced and lost from the degenerating Y, and in the long run, only a few genes remain on old Y chromosomes, if any. Thus, a mutation that causes a brightly colored spot is selected for in males, but selected against in females. Such a sexually antagonistic mutation can become established in the population only if the benefit to males outweighs its harmful effects in females; however, if this mutation arises in close proximity to the male-determining region, it will find itself more often in males, the sex in which it is beneficial, and it can become established more easily in the population. Thus, sexually antagonistic mutations are expected to accumulate close to sex-determining genes. Indeed, several color genes in guppies are closely linked to a male-determining gene. Sporadic recombination events between the male-beneficial mutations and the male-determining region would transfer these color genes onto the X chromosome, and they would be expressed in females. Thus, there is selection to eliminate recombination between the sexually antagonistic alleles and the sex-determining region, to ensure that such genes are restricted to the favored sex.
Four of these five kingdoms of life are eukaryotic: plants womens health kit doterra best femara 2.5 mg, animals womens health 4 week diet plan buy discount femara 2.5 mg online, fungi women's health beach boot camp buy discount femara 2.5mg, and protists; however womens health group lafayette order femara 2.5mg free shipping, from an evolutionary perspective, these divisions are inappropriate, because "protists" are nonmonophyletic -animals, plants, and fungi all evolve from within microbial lineages. Thus, labels such as protist and alga remain useful as descriptive terms, but have no phylogenetic meaning. In recent decades, molecular data have redrawn the fundamental division of living organisms into three domains (bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes), all of which the Opisthokonta unite the animals and fungi along with their microbial relatives. Other members of the group include the Ichthyosporea (parasites of Origin and Diversification of Eukaryotes fish) and an enigmatic slime mold called Fonticula. The Amoebozoa include many of the organisms typically called "amoebae," including the star of high school biology Amoeba proteus, two clades of slime molds, and Entamoeba histolytica, the causative agent of amoebic dysentery; however, this clade does not contain all amoebae, since amoeboid lineages can be found in virtually every major clade of eukaryotes. Amoebozoa emerged out of molecular phylogenetic analyses and are generally recovered in multigene molecular analyses, but there is no defining synapomorphy for Amoebozoa. The largest clade within the Amoebozoa, the Tubulinea, does have a morphological synapomorphy: cylindrical pseudopodia in which the cytoplasm streams in just one direction (monoaxial streaming). Examples of Tubulinea include the lobose testate (shelled) amoebae whose fossilized remains have been so useful in reconstructing paleoclimate and our old friend Amoeba. The Excavata were originally defined on the basis of a morphological and ultrastructural character, an "excavated" ventral feeding groove. The clade is only sometimes recovered, and then only in molecular analyses with many genes and dense taxonomic sampling. These include Giardia, a major cause of diarrhea worldwide that exacerbates malnutrition in children in the developing world. Other parasitic excavates include trypanosomes that cause sleeping sickness and Trichomonas vaginalis, which causes the sexually transmitted disease trichomoniasis. Members of Excavata are heterotrophic with the exception of one lineage of euglenids (a close relative of the trypanosomes) that acquired photosynthetic ability by engulfing a green alga endosymbiont hundreds of millions of years ago (see section 5). Many taxa, and all the parasites, within the Excavata are anaerobic and have highly reduced mitochondria, either hydrogenosomes or mitosomes. These two observations led to the now-disproven hypothesis that members of the Excavata represented early diverging eukaryotes that had branched off the eukaryotic lineage prior to the acquisition of mitochondria. The stramenopiles contain diatoms (algae with beautiful silica shells), kelps, and the causative agent of the Irish potato famine (Phytophthora). The 139 alveolates include the morphologically diverse ciliates, the dinoflagellates critical to the survival of coral reefs, and the apicomplexa, which include the malaria parasite. Both the stramenopiles and alveolates are defined by ultrastructural synapomorphies. The stramenopiles have specific hairs on one of their flagella and the alveolates have sacs (alveoli) underlying their cell membrane that lend rigidity. In contrast, Rhizaria is a large, heterogeneous collection of amoebae, flagellates, and parasitic lineages that lacks diagnostic ultrastructural features. The amoeboid members of Rhizaria tend to have filose (fine) or reticulating networks of pseudopodia, a morphological feature that generally (but not always) distinguishes Rhizaria from members of the Amoebozoa. The phylogenetic position of lineages that are wholly or predominantly photosynthetic is much less resolved. This instability is likely driven by gene transfer from the algal symbionts to the host nucleus, complicating phylogenetic reconstruction. The most popular hypothesis is that all the primary photosynthetic lineages (green algae, red algae, and glaucophytes) form a monophyletic clade, and that a single endosymbiotic event in the ancestor of this clade gave rise to all plastids (see section 5 for more information on plastids). Much of the energy that powers ecosystems-terrestrial, marine, and freshwater -is driven by photosynthetic eukaryotes making up the diverse clades of algae (including land plants, a lineage of green algae). Photosynthesis in eukaryotes was likely acquired through endosymbiosis of a single cyanobacterium more than a billion years ago, much like the endosymbiosis of an alphaproteobacterium that led to mitochondria. As the cyanobacterium was reduced to a plastid, many of the genes in the cyanobacterial genome were lost, and others were transferred to the host nucleus. The dashed line connecting red algae, green algae, and glaucophytes reflects the remaining uncertainty about this relationship. Multicellularity: + = multicellular lineages; +* = multiple origins of multicellularity; A = aggregative multicellularity such as slime molds. Photosynthesis: 1° = primarily photosynthetic lineages; 2° = secondarily photosynthetic. The prevailing hypothesis is that the initial acquisition of plastids occurred only once in the ancestor of all primary photosynthetic lineages. Evidence in support of this hypothesis includes the similarity among all plastids in the transport machinery that moves macromolecules from the host to and from the plastid, and the similarity of the plastid genes themselves according to phylogenetic analyses; however, the possibility that plastids were acquired multiple times cannot be ruled out at this time, mainly because the three lineages thought to be direct descendants of that single acquisition, the primary photosynthetic lineages (red algae, green algae, and glaucophytes), are not monophyletic in many phylogenetic analyses.