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This may allow for a way of knowing that can provide me(n) with a feminist viewpoint medications with pseudoephedrine discount 40 mg pepcid amex, and that is not generated out of a womans experience of her body medications emt can administer 20 mg pepcid amex. Emi Koyamas recent discussion of transfeminism medications list a-z order genuine pepcid, which expresses the feminist concerns of trans women medicine 802 discount pepcid 20 mg visa, shows how trans politics enables contemporary feminism to move beyond the connes of gendered binary feminism in order for feminist and trans communities to develop productive alliances: Transfeminism is not merely about merging trans politics with feminism symptoms 0f low sodium discount 40mg pepcid overnight delivery, but it is a critique of the second wave feminism from third wave perspectives (2003: 2) hair treatment purchase generic pepcid line. Sally Hines is the director of the Centre for Interdisciplinary Gender Studies, University of Leeds. Her research interests are in the areas of gender, sexuality, intimacies, the body, citizenship, and recognition. Her latest book is Gender, Diversity, Citizenship, and Recognition: Towards a Politics of Difference (2013). This deceptively simple question has provoked heated discussion among festival programmers, lm critics, and even lmmakers. Is a trans lm one that features self-identied trans characters or characters that viewers would recognize as trans Does it have to be meant for trans viewers, have a trans aesthetic, or just be open to trans interpretations Who decides which of these criteria are important, in what contexts, and for what reasons Sibling Rivalry Susan Stryker once quipped that transgender studies is queer theorys evil twin who willfully disrupts the privileged family narratives that favor sexual identity labels. The notion of trans cinema bears a similar sibling relation to that of queer cinema. Films that feature gender variance have always had a signicant place in queer cinema, but considerations of trans issues have tended to be subsumed under the focus on sexuality. The recent 1 emergence of transgender lm festivals provides one corrective to this problem. The family feud over queer versus trans approaches to specic lms has at times Downloaded from read. Chen Kaige, 1993; see Leung 2010: 46) shows how lm can spark rigorous discussion about the boundary and relation between queer and trans as interpretive categories. Critically Trans the growth of trans-centric approaches in lm criticism has contributed to more diverse ways of seeing trans on-screen. Analyses of stereotypes (Ryan 2009) expose the media dynamics that result in limiting and transphobic representations. While textual analyses dominate the eld, there are also important recent efforts to conduct theoretically sophisticated and empirically grounded studies of trans audience and community reception (Williams 2012). Trans Auteurs On the production side, the most exciting development is an emergent wave of trans-identied lmmakers, most notably in North America, whose works are committed not only to telling stories meant consciously for a trans or transliterate audience but also to aesthetic and genre experimentation. For example, Jules Roskams Against a Trans Narrative (2009) critiques medicalized narratives of transsexuality as well as the dominant self-narration of trans-masculine subjects. Morty Diamonds Trans Entities: the Nasty Love of Papand Wil` (2008) is a form of docu-porn that redresses mainstream pornographys exploitative representation of trans people while challenging the absence of sexuality in the documentary genre. Kimberly Reeds Prodigal Sons (2008) displaces the story of her own gender transition with a poignant exploration of her brothers story of mental illness and adoption history. These lmmakers are trans auteurs in the sense that they consciously construct a complex relation between their trans identication and their aesthetic signature on screen. Concerns have been expressed over the predominantly Western framework of trans studies that fails to account for forms of embodiment and identity that lie Downloaded from read. The same challenge faces the study of trans cinema: How should we approach lms that feature gender variance in contexts outside or predating the Western discursive history of trans Should we speak instead of a kathoey cinema from Thailand that has produced such lms as Iron Ladies (dir. How should we approach the genre of lms featuring premodern forms of cross-dressed embodiment in traditional theaters across East Asia, such as Farewell My Concubine and the King and the Clown (dir. How do we speak of subjectivities that do not neatly differentiate between same-sex desire and cross-gender identication, like that of the protagonist in the Blossoming of Maximos Oliveros (dir. Engaging with these questions even as they query the parameters, limits, and raison detre offi trans lm studies remains a challenging but crucial undertaking. Helen Hok-Sze Leung is an associate professor of gender, sexuality, and womens studies at Simon Fraser University. She is the author of Undercurrents: Queer Culture and Postcolonial Hong Kong (2008) and Farewell My Concubine: A Queer Film Classic (2010). The impact of transgender lm festivals warrants more attention in lm festival scholarship, which, as evidenced in a bibliography developed by the Film Festival Research Network (2013), is focused predominantly on queer lm festivals. That is to say, it indexes a horizon of possibility already here, which struggles to make freedom ourish through a radical trans politics. Not only a defensive posture, it builds in the name of the undercommons a world beyond the world, lived as a 1 dream of the good life. Or put another way, through its fetishistic attachment to the law and its vicissitudes, mainstream trans politics argues for inclusion in the same formations of death that have already claimed so many. This collusion can be seen in the lobbying for the addition of gender identity to federal hate crimes enhancements. However, an ethic of gender self-determination helps us to resist reading these biopolitical shifts as victories. Here the state and its interlocutors, including at times trans studies, work to translate and in turn conne the excesses of 2 gendered life into managed categories at the very moment of radical possibility. After all, the self in our contemporary moment points most easily toward the ction of the fully possessed rights-bearing subject of Western modernity, the foil of the undercommons. However, here it is not the individual but a collective self, an ontological position always in relation to others and dialectically forged in otherness, that is animated. The negation of this collective self, as relational and nonmimetic, is the alibi for contemporary rights discourse, which argues that discrete legal judgments will necessarily produce progressive change. Rather than believe that this is an oversight of the state form, critics of human rights discourse remind us that this substitution is a precondition of the states continued power. Antagonistic to such practices of constriction and universality, gender self-determination is affectively connected to the practices and theories of selfdetermination embodied by various and ongoing anticolonial, Black Power, and antiprison movements. For Frantz Fanon and many others, the violence of colonialism and antiblackness are so totalizing that ontology itself collapses; thus the claiming of a self fractures the everydayness of colonial domination. The Black Panther Party for Self Defense echoed a similar perspective in their 1966 Ten Point Plan. Self-determination, for the Panthers and for many others, is the potentiality of what gets called freedom. To center radical black, anticolonial, and prison abolitionist traditions is to 3 already be inside trans politics. Gender self-determination opens up space for multiple embodiments and their expressions by collectivizing the struggle against both interpersonal and state violence. Further, it pushes us away from building a trans politics on the fulcrum Downloaded from read. Stanley is a Presidents Postdoctoral Fellow in the Departments of Communication and Critical Gender Studies at the University of California, San Diego. Eric is an editor of Captive Genders: Trans Embodiment and the Prison Industrial Complex (2011) and has published articles in Social Text, Women and Performance, and American Quarterly. I am here using Fred Moten and Stefano Harneys concept of the undercommons to point toward the commons as relation and nonplace. Beginnings are delicate times when the foundation stones of the edice youre building are still visible; maybe if we take a look around now, we can save ourselves some trouble later. The Posttranssexual Manifesto asserts that the essence of posttranssexuality is subversion. The meta of that description could well be an operational denition of post-posttranssexuality: asserting the vision that guides our acts and drives us forward, while simultaneously refusing closure on any single discourse of our own manifold discourses that, in their enticing collisions and rebounds and fungible resonances, constitute, somewhere near their center of mass, the presumptive subject of this journal. Keep in mind that no one working in transgender studies has a degree in transgender studies. The value in that particular fact for us is that trans studies is still coalescing. We dont yet have a canon or a bunch of old folks telling us what the eld is or what counts as its discourse and who gets to say stuff about and within it. But soon enough we will, as surely as the night follows the day, and you can count on that. In Phase One, individuals, geographically scattered and usually unaware of each other, generate the rough ideas of what will become the discipline. They may form working groups at conferences devoted to other topics, or they may just hang out in each others hotel rooms and jam about possible white papers. In Phase Three, a few people with the necessary energy and drive come together, geographically or, as is more usual, virtually, and organize the rst publications, meetings, and, later, conferences. This is the point when the larger, nascent protocommunity rst begins to become self-aware and when the loose constellation of ideas that gravitate around this not-quite-existent collection of individuals begins to take shape. In Phase Four, the general description and usually the name of the discourse achieve a level of acceptance among TradAcs (traditional academics). This varies from place to place, as TradAcs are exquisitely conscious of how legitimacy works and are quick to separate legitimized disciplines from the rest; it has always appeared to this author that what drives this fervent defense of disciplinary boundaries is a combination of a certain schadenfreude coupled with a nagging sense of the fragility of the identity of ones own discipline, particularly in the social sciences. To some extent its a fragile moment, but it is also heady and bursting with possibilities. And, though its not yet fully formed and its goals not yet fully articulated, its also the disciplines peak moment. Which is why Im asking you to pay attention, because what happens next is that some grad students somewhere read this journal or look at a conference program, and instead of saying to themselves, Wow, this wonderful stuff can help me change the world, they say, Hey, maybe this stuff can help me get a job. So lets think about the two words at the heart of this disciplinary moment: transgender and studies. With that in mind, lets look beyond trans as a sociopolitical positionality and developing demographic, and lets think about how to use the power that we, by Downloaded from read. Studies is the institutions way of saying that the work proceeds in a detached and impartial manner. Dulce et decorum est: 1 sweet and tting it is, this moment when our feisty, nasty selves, saturated with change and ushed with success, meet the institutional rewards and requirements of transitioning from a movement to a discipline. My stakes in our nascent community, and in writing this, are, long after transgender studies has become an academic commodity, to encourage us to keep thinking like revolutionaries. From its oldest foundations, the present-day academy is designed to be terminally conservative, and it carries out that mission by creating future academics in its image. By virtue of this very narrow slice of time in which we now exist and work, we have so far avoided being digested by some academic institution and turned into its own esh. Its not easy to avoid that singularly unpleasant fate, not least because its so seductive; and, to be honest, not everyone wants to avoid it. If you do nothing else, ever, than survive the struggle to nd your own voice, you have still fullled a primal life goal, and everything else that happens ows from that pluripotent act. Finding your voice is the deeper meaning underlying the hoary mythoids that saturate Western storytelling. Speaking yourself disrupts both societys and cultures stupendous drive to speak you. Eventually there are balances and inection points to be found between speaking and being spoken, because in living fully in the world one does both; but at the inception, stick with speaking. If you speak from your heart about what really matters to you, then the work and your love for it will follow. Because it subverts binarism, refuses closure, and foregrounds multiplicity, trans is a postmodern discourse; yet, perforce, studies assumes writing in a language saturated with binarism, closure, and the idea of wholeness that Brian 3 Massumi (1992: 3) translates as molarity; Audre Lorde ([1984] 2007) pointed out that the masters tools will never dismantle the masters house.

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Client-Centered Therapy As discussed in Chapter 1 medicine 7253 pill purchase genuine pepcid, therapists who provide treatment within the framework of humanistic psychology view psychopathology as arising from blocked personal growth symptoms you need a root canal order pepcid 20mg amex. Client-centered therapy 2 medications that help control bleeding cheap 20 mg pepcid overnight delivery, a humanistic therapy developed by psychologist Carl Rogers medicine vocabulary buy pepcid 40 mg mastercard, is intended to promote personal growth so that a client can reach his or her full potential symptoms nervous breakdown purchase pepcid 20mg overnight delivery. The Goal of Client-Centered Therapy Rogers believed that a clients symptoms arise from an incongruence between the real self (that is symptoms 9dpiui discount 20 mg pepcid with visa, the person the client knows himself or herself to be) and the ideal self (that is, the person he or she would like to be). This incongruence leads to a fragmented sense of self and blocks the potential for personal growth. The goal of treatment, according to Rogers, should be to decrease the incongruence, either by modifying the ideal self or by realizing that the real self is closer to the ideal self than previously thought, which in turn leads to a more integrated sense of self, and an enhanced ability for the client to reach his or her full potential. According to the theory, the clients emotional pain should diminish as the real self and the ideal self become more congruent. Methods of Client-Centered Therapy the two basic tenets of client-centered therapy are that the therapist should express genuine empathy and unconditional positive regard toward clients. Genuine Empathy the therapist does not interpret the clients words, but rather accurately reects back the key parts of what the client said, which allows the client to experience the therapists genuine empathy (Kirschenbaum & Jourdan, 2005). Were Leon in client-centered therapy, for instance, the therapist would try to convey his or her Client-centered therapy empathy for Leons situation by paraphrasing his descriptions of his feelings and A humanistic therapy developed by Carl reactions to situations. According to Rogers (1951), if the therapist simply repeats Rogers that is intended to promote personal the same words, reects the clients words inaccurately, or seems to express false growth so that a client can reach his or her empathy, the therapy tends to fail. The therapist can honestly do so by continually showing that the client is inherently worthy as a human being, distinguishing between the client as a person and the particular thoughts, feelings, and actions of the client (about which the therapist may not necessarily have a positive opinion). According to proponents of client-centered therapy, when clients experience genuine empathy and unconditional positive regard from the therapist, they come to accept themselves as they are, which decreases the incongruence between real and ideal selves. Cognitive-Behavior Therapy Behaviorism and cognitive psychology each led to explanations for how psychopathology can arise (see Chapter 2); in turn, each of these approaches gave rise to its own form of therapy. Behavior therapy rests on two ideas: (1) Maladaptive behaviors, cognitions, and emotions stem from previous learning, and (2) new learning can allow patients to develop more adaptive behaviors, cognitions, and emotions. Lets look rst at the unique elements of each type of therapy and then consider cognitive-behavior therapy. Behavior therapy stresses changing behavior rather than identifying unconscious motivations or root causes of problems (Wolpe, 1997). Behavior therapy has appealed to psychologists in part because of the ease in determining whether the treatment is effective: the patients maladaptive behavior either changes or it doesnt. In some cases, a behavior itself may not be immediately maladaptive, but it may be followed by unwanted consequences at a later point in time. The ultimate goal is for the the form of treatment that rests on the ideas patient to replace problematic behaviors with more adaptive ones; the patient acthat (1) maladaptive behaviors, cognitions, and emotions stem from previous learning and quires new behaviors through classical and operant conditioning (and, to a lesser (2) new learning can allow patients to develop extent, modeling). The antecedents the form of treatment that combines methods might include his (irrational) thoughts about what will happen if he goes into a from cognitive and behavior therapies. The consequences of his avoidant behavior include relief from the anticipatory anxiety. The therapist assigns homework, important tasks that the patient completes between therapy sessions. Homework for Leon, for instance, might consist of his making eye contact with a coworker during the week, or even striking up a brief conversation about the weather. To prepare for this task, Leon might spend part of a therapy session practicing making eye contact or making small talk with his therapist. The success of behavior therapy is measured in terms of the change in frequency and intensity of the maladaptive behavior and the increase in adaptive behaviors. The Role of Classical Conditioning in Behavior Therapy As we saw with Little Albert in Chapter 2, classical conditioning can give rise to fears and phobias and, more generally, conditioned emotional responses. To treat the conditioned emotional responses that are associated with a variety of symptoms and disorders and to create new, more adaptive learning, behavioral therapists may employ classical conditioning principles. Treating Anxiety and Avoidance A common treatment for anxiety disorders, particularly phobias, is based on the principle of habituation: the emotional response to a stimulus that elicits fear or anxiety is reduced by exposing the patient to the stimulus repeatedly. The technique of exposure involves such repeated contact with the (feared or arousing) stimulus in a controlled setting, and usually in a gradual way. The patient rst creates a hierarchy of feared events, arranging them from least to most feared (see Table 4. Over multiple sessions, this process is repeated with items higher in the hierarchy until all items no longer elicit signi cant symptoms. The Fear column contains the rating (from 0 to 100, with 100 = very intense fear) that indicates how the patient would feel if he or she were in the given situation. The Avoidance column contains the rating (from 0 to 100, with 100 = always avoids the situation) that indicates the degree to which the person avoids the situation. Although Leon avoids almost all the situations on the completed form, some situations arouse more fear than others. Situation Fear Avoidance Give a 1-hour formal lecture to 30 coworkers 100 100 Go out on a date 98 100 Ask a colleague to go out on a date 97 100 Attend a retirement party for a coworker who is retiring 85 100 Habituation Have a conversation with the person sitting next to me on the bus 70 100 the process by which the emotional response Ask someone for directions or the time 60 99 to a stimulus that elicits fear or anxiety is reduced by exposing the patient to the Walk around at a crowded mall 50 98 stimulus repeatedly. Leons social phobia could be treated in any or all of these ways: He could vividly imagine interacting with others, he could use virtual reality software to have the experience of interacting with others without actually doing so, or he could interact with others in the esh. Virtual reality exposure has been used to treat a variety of psychological disorders, including posttraumatic stress disorder (Ready et al. Patients are less likely to refuse treatment with virtual reality exposure than with in vivo exposure (Garcia-Palacios et al. Whereas exposure relies on habituation, systematic desensitization relies on (Krijn et al. Systematic desensitization is used less frequently than exposure because it is usually not as efficient or effective; however, it may be used to treat a fear or phobia when a patient chooses not to try exposure or has tried it but was disappointed by the results. The rst step of systematic desensitization is learning to become physically relaxed through progressive muscle relaxation, relaxing the muscles of the body in sequence from feet to head. Once the patient has mastered this ability, the therapist helps the patient construct a hierarchy of possible experiences relating to the feared stimulus, ordering them from least to most feared, just as is done for exposure (see Figure 4. Over multiple therapy sessions, the patient practices becoming relaxed and then continuing to remain relaxed while imagining increasingly feared experiences. Although systematic desensitization and biofeedback both involve relaxation, systematic desensitization uses relaxation as the rst step in reducing anxiety in response to feared stimuli and does not utilize any equipment. In contrast, the goal of biofeedback is learning to control what are generally involuntary responses. Treating Compulsive Behaviors In some cases, avoidance or fear of a specic stimulus is not the primary maladaptive behavior. After grocery shopping, for example, a person may feel compelled to reorganize all the canned goods in the cupboard so that the contents remain in alphabetical order. Similarly, some people with bulimia nervosa feel compelled to make themselves throw up after eating even a bite of a dessert. These Systematic desensitization compulsive behaviors temporarily serve to decrease anxiety that has become part of the behavioral technique of learning to relax a conditioned emotional response to a particular stimulus. Foundations of Treatment 125 To treat compulsive behaviors, behavior therapists may use a variant of exposure called exposure with response prevention, whereby the patient is carefully prevented from engaging in the usual maladaptive response after being exposed to the stimulus (Foa & Goldstein, 1978). Using this technique with someone who compulsively alphabetizes his or her canned goods, for instance, involves exposing the person to a cupboard full of canned goods arranged randomly and then, as agreed, preventing the typical maladaptive response of alphabetizing the cans. Similarly, someone with bulimia might eat a bite or two of a dessert and, as planned, not throw up. Once she is out of the habit of purging, she may use exposure with response stimulus). Others may binge (habitual maladaptive behavior) when they eat dessert prevention to learn to eat cookies without (the stimulus). To treat such disorders, the behavior therapist may seek to limit the patients contact with the stimulus. This technique, called stimulus control, involves changing the frequency of a maladaptive conditioned response by controlling the frequency or intensity of exposure to the stimulus that elicits the response. For example, the person who drinks too much in bars would refrain from going to bars; the person who binges after eating even a bit of dessert might avoid buying desserts or going into bakeries. Stimulus control will be described more fully when we discuss treatment for substance abuse (Chapter 9). The Role of Operant Conditioning in Behavior Therapy Whereas classical conditioning methods can be used to decrease maladaptive behaviors related to conditioned emotional responses, operant conditioning techniques can be used to modify maladaptive behaviors more generally. When operant conditioning principles such as reinforcement and punishment are used to change maladaptive behaviors, the process is called behavior modication. Making Use of Reinforcement and Punishment the key to successful behavior modication is setting appropriate response contingencies, which are the specic consequences that follow maladaptive or desired behaviors. It is these specic consequences (namely, reinforcement or punishment) that modify an undesired behavior. Some behaviors are too complex to learn or perform immediately and must be developed gradually. Lets consider a woman who has had the eating disorder anorexia nervosa for a number of years. As we discuss in detail in Chapter 10, this eating disorder involves an inadequate intake of calories, which is a consequence of Exposure with response prevention the behavioral technique in which a patient the individuals irrational belief about being fat. They may not exposed to a stimulus that usually elicits the be able to go from their daily intake of perhaps a serving of yogurt, a glass of milk, response. Sometimes the desired behavior change (in this case, resumthe behavioral technique for changing the ing normal eating) can only occur gradually, and reinforcement follows small and frequency of a maladaptive conditioned then increasingly larger components of the desired new complex behavior. Thus, a response by controlling the frequency or woman recovering from anorexia nervosa might be reinforced for increasing her intensity of exposure to the stimulus that dinner from only a glass of milk and an apple to also include a small helping of sh. On subsequent meals, she might be expected to eat the sh (without reinforcement) Behavior modication and be reinforced for adding a piece of bread. This process would continue until she the use of operant conditioning principles to ate normal meals. Making Use of Extinction In addition to using reinforcement and punishment, therapists also rely on the principle of extinction, which is the process of eliminating a behavior by not reinforcing it. To see how extinction can work to change behavior, lets consider someone who has a mild version of Leons problem of social phobia. This man only gets anxious in certain types of social situations, such as going to a party where there will be unfamiliar people. Therapist and patient might decide that the maladaptive behavior to change is his complaining, because it leads his wife to decline the invitation (or to leave him at home). Patient and therapist agree to have the wife come to a therapy session and propose to her that she extinguish her husbands complaining. That is, when he complains about parties, she should ignore these comments, and they both then go to the party. The date, day of the week, and time of day can help the patient to identify triggers related to time. Information about the context can help the patient to identify whether particular situations or environments have become conditioned stimuli. Identifying thoughts, feelings, interactions with others, or other stimuli that triggered the problematic behavior (right-hand column in Figure 4. Daily self-monitoring logs are used in treatments for anxiety, poor mood, smoking, compulsive gambling, overeating, and sleep problems, among others. Behavioral techniques that rely on operant conditioning principles are often used in inpatient psychiatric units, where clinicians can intensively monitor and treat patients 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Under these conditions, caregivers can change the response contingencies for desired and undesired behavior. In order to change behavior, treatment programs for psychiatric patients, mentally retarded children and adults, and prison inmates often employ secondary reinforcers, objects and events that do not directly satisfy a biological need but are desirable nonetheless. Examples of secondary reinforcers are praise or the opportunity to enjoy a favorite activity, such as watching television or using a computer. In addition, a common Shaping form of secondary reinforcement relies on a system in which participants can earn the process of reinforcing a small component a token or chit by engaging in desired behaviors. The tokens or chits can be of behavior at a time and then progressively exchanged at a store for small items such as candy or for privileges such as adding components until the desired complex behavior occurs. A treatment program that uses such secondary reinforcers to change behavior is called a token economy.

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It is only through careful evaluamental processes mental contents tion that a clinician can discern whether such self-deprecating behavior reects Attention Cognitive a patients attempt to show good manners or his or her core maladaptive Perception distortions dysfunctional beliefs about self medicine qhs order pepcid 40 mg without prescription. Memory Biases in mental processes and distortions in mental contents affect each other (see Figure 2 4 medications purchase cheap pepcid on-line. The reverse is also true: Cognitive distortions can create a bias in what people pay attention to medicine man 1992 generic 40mg pepcid, Emotion perceive medications like adderall order pepcid 40mg on-line, and remember 2 medications that help control bleeding best order pepcid. When we are afraid medicine hollywood undead order pepcid online from canada, we try to avoid whats making us afraid or calm ourselves down; when we feel guilty, we seek to relieve the guilt. Yet not everyone experiences the normal range of emotions or is equally effective in regulating emotions. Many psychological disorders include problems that involve emotions: not feeling or expressing enough emotions (such as showing no response to a situation where others would be joyous or sad), having emotions that are inappropriate or inappropriately excessive for the situation (such as feeling sad to the point of crying for no apparent reason), or having emotions that are difficult to regulate (such as not being able to overcome a fear of ying, even though you know that such fear is irrational) (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). To psychologists, an emotion is a shortlived experience evoked by a stimulus that produces a mental response, a typical behavior, and a positive or negative subjective feeling. The stimulus that initiates an emotion could be physical: It can be a kiss, the letter F on an essay you get back from a professor, or the sounds of a tune you listen to on your computer. This young man Mental health clinicians and researchers sometimes use the word affect to appears to have inappropriate affect. An example is a person laughing at a funeral or talking about sometypical behavior, and a positive or negative thing very sad or traumatic while smiling, or, conversely, talking about a happy subjective feeling. Flat affect is a lack of, or considerably diminAffect ished, emotional expression, such as occurs when someone speaks robotically and An emotion that is associated with a particular shows little facial expression. People with some psychological disorders, such as idea or behavior, similar to an attitude. In the lm Grey Gardens, Little Edie and her mother often displayed inappropriFlat affect ate affect, and Little Edies emotions were sometimes labile, rapidly changing from A lack of, or considerably diminished, anger to happy excitement to relative calm. For instance, at one point, Big Edie reemotional expression, such as occurs when counts that when Little Edie had moved to New York City, Big Edie wanted Mr. A mood lurks in the background and inuences mental processes, mental contents, and behavior. For example, when you wake up on the wrong side of the bed for no apparent reason and feel grumpy all day, you are experiencing a type of bad mood. Emotions and Behavior Emotions and behavior can be closely linked in various ways (see Figure 2. People are more likely to participate in activities and behave in ways that are conFigure 2. When people are sad, they tend to hunch their shoulders and listen to slow music rather than up-t beat music. When people are afraid, they tend to freeze, like a deer caught Emotions Behavior in the headlights. And when people are depressed, they often dont have the inclination or energy to see friends, which can lead to social isolation. Whenh h emotion often leads a person to behave in a depressed people make an effort to see friends or engage in other activities that particular way that matches the emotional they used to enjoy, they often become less depressed (Jacobson, Martell, & Dimidstate. By the same token, behavior that is not consistent with an emotional state can lead to jian, 2001). The fact that changing behaviors can alter emotions is the basis of a a change in the emotion, bringing it more into number of psychological treatments (to be discussed in Chapter 4). Emotions, Mental Processes, and Mental Contents Emotions not only affect behavior, but also affect mental processes and mental contents (see Figure 2. In fact, emotions and moods contribute to biases in attention, perception, and memory (Blaney, 1986; Eich, Macauley, & Figure 2. When anxious, people are more likely to judge a neutral stimulus as anxiety-related (Mogg & Bradley, Mental Emotions 2005). In addition, the causality also works in the other direction: Mental processes can affect emotions. That is, we all regularly try to understand why events in contents our lives occur, and thus make attributions, assigning causes for particular occurrences. The inuence also operates in the other directions: Mental processes and the self-serving attributional bias occurs when people typically attribute positive mental contents can alter peoples emotions. If you are prone to the self-serving bias, you will attribute this positive event to some enduring quality that you Mood believe you possess: intelligence, perseverance, ability, or some similarly positive A persistent emotion that is not attached to a stimulus; it exists in the background trait. People and inuences mental processes, mental who are depressed rarely display the self-serving attributional bias, which is concontents, and behavior. Understanding Psychological Disorders: the Neuropsychosocial Approach 57 sistent with their negative view of themselves, their past, and their future (Mezulis et al. This bias, although present in all cultures, is less evident among N members of Asian cultures than among members of Western cultures (Mezulis P S et al. For instance, Walter Scott and colleagues (2003) found that, among depressed individuals, those who were irritable and hostile were more likely to blame their negative life events on others, whereas those who were predominantly sad were more likely to blame themselves for such negative events. Emotions, Moods, and Psychological Disorders Many psychological disorders are marked by impaired or inappropriate emotions, emotional experiences, or emotional expression. For example, excesses of mood, as occur in depression (prolonged and profound sadness) and mania (prolonged and inappropriate elation or euphoria), are part of mood disorders. Furthermore, some dissociative disorders, which involve a separation of normally integrated mental processes, include the absence of the normal emotional experiences (Hunter et al. Some psychological disorders, such as those that involve high levels of fear or anxiety, often are accompanied by emotions or moods that dont t the context in which they arise (Davidson, Jackson, & Klein, 2000). We are all likely to feel anxious and afraid if faced with a car that seems to be out of control and barreling toward us, but most of us will not experience that same level of anxiety or fear when simply driving across a bridge, giving a presentation, seeing a spider, or getting a tetanus shot. Difficulty in regulating emotions and related thoughts and behaviors can lead to three types of problems (Cicchetti & Toth, 1991; Weisz et al. They are called externalizing problems because their primary effects are on others and/ or their environment; these problems are usually observable to others. Internalizing problems are so named because their primary effect is on the troubled individual rather than on others; such problems are generally less observable to others. This other category includes eating disorders and learning disorders (Achenbach et al. Significant difficulty in regulating emotions can begin in childhood and last through adulthood, forming the basis for some disorders. For example, personality disorders are inexible and maladaptive stable personality traits that lead to distress or dysfunction (Gratz et al. As we discuss in Chapter 13, several personality disorders are characterized by difficulties in emotional regulation, marked by impulsive behavior or rapid changes in emotion. Problems in regulating emotion can also occur in some forms of eating disorders and substance-related disorders (Sim & Zeman, 2005; Thorberg & Lyvers, 2006). Brain Bases of Emotion Emotion is a psychological response, but it is also a neurological response. We can learn much about the psychological aspects of emotion by considering how it arises from brain function. Approach emotions are positive emotions, such as love and happiness, and tend to activate the left frontal lobe more than the right. Withdrawal emotions are negative emotions, such as fear and sadness, and tend to activate the right frontal lobe more than the left (Davidson, 1992a, 1992b, 1993, 1998, 2002; Davidson et al. Researchers have also found that people who generally have more activation in the left frontal lobe tend to be more optimistic than people who generally have more activation in the right. This is important because depression has been associated with relatively less activity in the left frontal lobe (Davidson, 1993, 1994a, 1998; Davidson et al. As a result of genetics, learning, or (most likely) some combination of the two, some people are temperamentally more likely to experience positive (approach) emotions, whereas others are more likely to experience negative (withdrawal) emotions (Fox et al. Joseph LeDoux (1996) has further suggested that different brain systems contribute to different emotions. This is important for psychopathology and its treatment because some of these systems lie outside of awareness and are not easy to control voluntarily. In contrast, other brain systems rely on conscious interpretation of stimuli or events, and hence might be more easily targeted during psychotherapy. In particular, LeDoux argues that some of the brain systems that underlie emotions work like reexes, independent of conscious thought or interpretation. Fear involves a reexive activation of the For example, fear involves activation of the amygdala, but not necessarily any amygdala, not necessarily accompanied by any cognitive interpretation of the stimulus (you become afraid before youve thought cognitive interpretation of the stimulus. Other emotions, such as guilt, depend on such cognitive emotions, such as guilt, depend on such interprocesses. Temperament Temperament is closely related to emotion: Temperament refers to the various aspects of personality that reect a persons typical emotional state and emotional reactivity (including the speed and strength of reactions to stimuli). Temperament is in large part innate, and it inuences behavior in early childhood and even in N infancy. Temperament is of interest in the study of psychological disorders for two P S reasons (Nigg, 2006): First, it may be part of the neurological vulnerability for certain disorders; having a particular temperament may make a person especially vulnerable to certain psychological disorders, even at an early age. For instance, people who are temperamentally more emotionally reactive are more likely to develop psychological disorders related to high levels of anxiety. Second, it is possible that in some cases a psychological disorder is simply an extreme form of a normal variation in temperament. For instance, some researchers argue that social phobia is on a continuum with shyness but is an extreme form of it; shyness involves withdrawal emotions and lack of sociability, and is viewed as a temperament (Schneider et al. One or the other of them would respond to a neutral or offhand remark Temperament the various aspects of personality that with emotion that was out of proportion: hot anger, bubbling joy, or snapping irreect a persons typical emotional state and ritability. Its not a coincidence that mother and daughter seemed similar in this emotional reactivity (including the speed respect. Much evidence indicates that genes contribute strongly to temperament and strength of reactions to stimuli). Researchers have associated some aspects of temperament to specic genes, such as genes that affect receptors for the neurotransmitter dopamine and a gene involved in serotonin production, and have shown that these genes can inuence depression and problems controlling impulses (Nomura et al. Genes that affect dopamine receptors have also been shown to inuence emotional reactivity (Oniszczenko & Dragan, 2005). However, these genes have stronger effects on children raised in harsh family environments, and, as we stressed earlier, the effects of genes need to be considered within the context of specic environments (Roisman & Fraley, 2006; Saudino, 2005). Researchers and scholars going back at least as far as Plato in ancient Greece have proposed many ways to conceive of variations in temperament (Buss, 1995; J. Novelty seeking consists of searching out novel stimuli and reacting to them positively; this dimension of temperament also involves being impulsive, avoiding frustration, and losing ones temper easily. Novelty seeking is thought to be associated with the actions of dopamine (which is known to play a central role in the effects of reward on behavior). A high level of novelty seeking is associated with a variety of disorders that involve impulsive or aggressive behaviors (Yoo et al. Harm avoidance consists of reacting very negatively to harm and, whenever possible, avoiding it. This dimension of temperament may be associated with the actions of serotonin (which, as noted earlier, is involved in mood and motivation). For instance, people with anxiety disorders tend to have higher levels of harm avoidance than do people without anxiety disorders (Ball, Smolin, & Shekhar, 2002; Rettew et al. Reward dependence involves the degree to which behaviors that have led to desired outcomes in the past are repeated; for example, a person may continually seek out social approval because he or she has received approval in the past. This dimension of temperament is associated with the actions of norepinephrine (which plays a role in attention and the stress response). A low level of reward dependence, in combination with a high level of impulsivity, is found in people who have substance use disorders (Tcheremissine et al. The fourth dimension of temperament is persistence, which consists of making continued efforts in the face of frustration when attempting to accomplish something. Originally, this dimension was viewed as an aspect of reward dependence (and hence affected by norepinephrine), but subsequent research has suggested that certain genes that lead to low levels of dopamine may be associated with it (Czermak et al. A low level of persistence is found in attention-decit/hyperactivity disorder (Yoo et al. In fact, researchers have found associations between specic genes and these dimensions of temperament (Gillespie et al. The specic results suggest that complex inheriBecause of temperament, some people will avoid tance, not Mendelian inheritance, is at work. However, not surprisingly, the underlyare more likely to have high levels of anxiety and ing neurological bases for the four dimensions of temperament are more complex to develop anxiety disorders.

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The students took to their assigned roles perhaps too well treatment 001 purchase genuine pepcid, and the experiment had to be ended early because of the cruel treatment the guards were inflicting on the prisoners treatment in statistics discount pepcid online amex. Which of the following suggestions is most likely to reduce the hostility felt between antagonistic groups After her teacher flatly refused medicine head order pepcid 20mg on line, Tanya asked the teacher to push the test back one day treatment 001 - b order pepcid 40mg online, to Wednesday symptoms inner ear infection discount 20 mg pepcid. In the Milgram studies medications related to the blood cheap 20mg pepcid otc, the dependent measure was the (A) highest level of shock supposedly administered. The tendency of people to look toward others for cues about the appropriate way to behave when confronted by an emergency is known as (A) bystander intervention. Your new neighbor seems to know everything about ancient Greece that your social studies teacher says during the first week of school. You do not consider that she might already have learned about ancient Greece in her old school. In Aschs conformity study, approximately what percentage of participants gave at least one incorrect response However, once she became a student at Princeton, she began to wear a lot of orange Princeton Tiger clothing. The discomfort caused by her longstanding dislike of the color orange and her current ownership of so much orange-and-blackstriped clothing is known as (A) cognitive dissonance. When Pasquale had his first oboe solo in the orchestra concert, his performance was far worse than it was when he rehearsed at home. A phenomenon that helps explain Pasquales poor performance is known as (A) social loafing. Kelleys attribution theory says that people use which of the following kinds of information in explaining events After your schools football team has a big win, students in the halls can be heard saying We are awesome. On their second date, Megan confides in Francisco that she still loves to watch Rugrats. These two young lovers will be brought closer together through this process of (A) self-disclosure. On the fifth day of school, Jody is sent to the principal for kicking members of the other groups. Rosenthal and Jacobsons Pygmalion in the Classroom study showed that (A) peoples expectations of others can influence the behavior of those others. Contact between antagonistic groups without superordinate goals is less successful, and simply avoiding members of the other group is unlikely to decrease the intergroup hostility. While guest speakers may be able to influence the group members attitudes, they will be less effective than the use of superordinate goals. Foot-in-the-door is when one makes a small request and, once that request is agreed to , follows up with a larger request. Had Tanya brought her teacher an apple and then made her request she would have been attempting to capitalize on norms of reciprocity, the idea that one good turn deserves another. Although Tanya is, in fact, attempting to broker a compromise and engage in some bargaining, the strategy she used has a more specific, psychological name. While Milgram manipulated a number of independent variables including the location of the learner relative to the teacher, the dependent variable he measured was always how far the participants would go in shocking the learners. Pluralistic ignorance can be seen as a kind of modeling or conformity that occurs in emergencies. However, pluralistic ignorance is a superior answer due to its clear relationship to emergency situations. Diffusion of responsibility is the finding that the more people who witness an emergency, the less likely any one is to intervene. The self-fulfilling prophecy effect is when one persons expectations affect another persons behavior. Pluralistic ignorance is the tendency to look to others for hints about how one is supposed to act in certain situations. Confirmation bias is the tendency to focus on information that supports ones initial ideas. The combination of her hatred of the color orange and her ownership of a lot of orange clothing results in a tension called cognitive dissonance. It will motivate her to reduce the tension by either changing her opinion of orange or radically altering her wardrobe. Social loafing is the tendency of people to exert less effort in a group than they would if they were alone. Groupthink is the idea that because group members are often loathe to express opinions different from those of the majority, some groups fall prey to poor decisions. Deindividuation is when people in a group lose their self-restraint due to arousal and anonymity. Diffusion of responsibility is one way to explain the inverse relationship between group size and the expression of prosocial behavior. The other terms, while related to psychology, are not generally important in attribution theory. When the football team wins, they want to identify with them and therefore say We are awesome. It explains that people overestimate the role of personal factors when explaining other peoples behavior. The self-fulfilling prophecy effect is the finding that peoples expectations about others can influence the behavior of those others. Tamp are engaging in discrimination by acting differently toward different groups of people. Athena may be really fast or overconfident, but she is not evidencing a prejudice. Ginnys belief that all Asians are smart is a stereotype that may or may not lead her to have some kind of prejudice against Asians. Dual sharing is a made-up term, and open communication, while healthy in a relationship, does not describe this specific exchange. Simpson fostered the development of in-group and out-group bias, the belief that members of ones own group are superior to members of other groups. Simpsons grouping, the fact that he attacks only members of other groups suggests that out-group bias may play a role. Group polarization is the tendency of groups to take more extreme positions than those taken by their individual members. Since Jody acts alone and not as part of a group, his aggression cannot be seen as an example of deindividuation. Superordinate goals are helpful in reducing conflict between groups by making their success contingent upon their cooperation. Groupthink is the idea that because group members often avoid expressing opinions different from those of the majority, some groups fall prey to poor decisions. The just-world belief tells us that people like to think that others get what they deserve. Confederates are people who, unbeknownst to the participants in the experiment, work with the experimenter. It is comprised of 100 questions, and you will be allotted 70 minutes to answer them. Therefore, dont be alarmed if you have more trouble answering the questions that appear later on the exam; thats just the way it should be. Below, we have summarized a few test-taking strategies that we hope will help you with the exam. Once youve prepared for this test youll see that in order to answer many of the questions on the test, you dont even need to look at the answer choices. In fact, its a good test-taking strategy to try to answer multiple-choice questions before you look at the choices. That way, once you do look at the answer choices, you have a good sense of what you are looking for. For example, consider the following question: Tiger is extremely concerned about doing the right thing. He feels very guilty when he even thinks about doing something immoral or illegal. According to Freud, Tiger has a strong If you are familiar with Freuds theory of personality, you could probably guess that the answer would be superego without checking the answer choices. Heres another example: A psychologist who subscribes to the biomedical perspective would be most likely to emphasize the importance of In this case, the answer is slightly less obvious. You probably realize that it will have to do with concepts such as genetics, nature, and/or neurochemicals. Once you identify these potential answers, selecting the answer is, again, fairly simple. The correct answer is B, as hormones and neurotransmitters are examples of the kind of neurochemicals the biomedical psychologists believe influence thought and behavior. Even though it is helpful to imagine what the answer might be without reading the answer choices, it is essential that you read and carefully consider all the choices presented. Occasionally, particularly on the more difficult questions, one of the answer choices will be appealing, but another answer is superior. When you decide a choice is incorrect, cross it out, and eliminate it from consideration. Since there is no penalty for guessing on the exam, you should answer each multiple-choice question, even if you feel like you are guessing. Dont get so caught up thinking about what you learned that you forget to use your common sense. Since one would suspect that the relationship between these variables is a positive one, you are choosing between choices C, D, and E. Sometimes language used in the stem of the question can give you a clue about the right answer. Each perspective uses certain terms, and the correct answer will frequently use language from the perspective indicated in the stem of the question. The stem of the question tells you that the correct answer must be one that a behaviorist would agree with, so you know youre looking for an answer that uses behaviorist terms and concepts. Options A and E use cognitive psychological terms (interpreting, thinking, remembering). Option C uses psychoanalytic language (repressed, unconscious), and Option D uses bio-psychological language (brain chemistry and evolutionary forces). Only Option B uses terms from the behavioral perspective (reinforcement and punishment), so it must be the right answer. Choices that contain words like all or never or everyone are rarely (notice I dont say never) correct. If some of the choices are so similar that one cannot be better than the other, neither can be the correct answer. Wear a watch to the exam and make sure to note the time the section begins and when it is scheduled to end. Since you have 70 minutes to answer 100 questions, you have just over two-thirds of a minute for each question. If you find yourself confused, skip the question and plan to come back to it once you have completed the section. If you are debating among several answer choices, choose one temporarily, but mark the question so that you will remember to review it once you have finished the other questions. Assuming your essays are average (keep in mind that they will determine onethird of your grade), you need to earn approximately 60 points on the multiple-choice section to earn a 3, 70 points to earn a 4, and 80 points to earn a 5. Although you do not want to be so anxious that you cant focus, you will want to psych yourself up for the test. These readers are assigned to one of the two essay questions and go through careful training to ensure they grade your writing fairly and consistently. Readers go through several reliability checks during the reading to make sure each free-response answer is read fairly. These essays are graded in a very specific way, and your writing should take this difference into account. Free-Response graders strive to be very consistent and objective, so the tests are graded in a systematic way. The entire grading system is set up to ensure that every students response is given a fair reading. Understanding how the tests are graded should give you insight as to how to use your writing time best. This chapter begins with general suggestions about answering the free-response questions. Finally, a fictional student response is provided with a complete explanation of how this student response would be scored. Carefully examining this question, rubric, and scored sample student response will give you a complete picture of how the items are structured and scored. You should have timed some practice responses before the test in order to get an idea about how much time you need to answer the questions. Use two to three minutes to organize your thoughts about each response, but be careful not to spend so much time that you feel rushed later. While readers do not give points for the use of full sentences, proper paragraph form, and so on, they are not allowed to give any points for a response written as an outline. Do not label parts of your response with letters; use paragraphs to show where you move from one point to the next. Picture the likely rubric in your mind, and answer each part of the question in a clear, organized way. Structure your answer so that it clearly shows you answered all parts of the question. Each paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that indicates which part of the question you are answering. Remember you get points for accurate information, not style or aesthetic considerations of your response.

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